Warfare During The Crusades Essay Example for Free

Warfare During The Crusades Essay Medieval warfare is the combat of the middle Ages. In Europe several changes like technological, cultural, and social developments had brought about a dramatic alteration in the nature of warfare from ancient times, altering military procedures and the function of cavalry and artillery. Analogous transformations in patterns of warfare as well were introduced in other parts of the world. The Crusades were a succession of military conflicts of a religious nature which took place in the years 1095–1291, more often than not authorized by the Pope in the name of Christendom. The Crusades in the beginning had the purpose of recapturing Jerusalem and the consecrated Holy Land from Muslim canon and were instigated in rejoinder to a call from the Eastern Orthodox Byzantine realm for help in opposition to the spreading out of the Muslim Seljuq dynasty into Anatolia. The European and the Muslim styles of warfare during the time of the First and Second Crusade had developed several distinct characteristics which decided the success of the crusades. The warfare of middle ages demonstrated the superiority of mounted cavalry over traditional ground forces, which helped to set the nature that medieval warfare that would maintain for the next several centuries. According to The Second Crusade and the Cistercians by Gervers the perchance the most significant technological change in warfare in Europe was the introduction of the stirrup, which was introduced in Europe in the 8th century, but was previously in use in the Middle East. The stirrup, accompanied with horse breeding and more sophisticated iron and steel working, helped in development of far more powerful cavalry. In European warfare, the heavily-armored knight became central where as in Muslim warfare lightly armored horse archers did so. The book The Invention of the Crusades by Tyerman describes that it is almost certainly a mistake to have a discussion of medieval European armies during the middle ages, as Europe was culturally varied continent and each region in it had their characteristic style of warfare. Medieval Anglo-French armies could be divided into three segments termed as battles or battalions such as the vanguard or forward, the center or main-battle, and the rearguard or backward. The front line was often composed of archers and other elective long-range weapons, like slings and stones and the rare lightweight simple catapults, while the center was composed of infantry and armored cavalry (knights), and the rearguard was sometimes comprised of more nimble cavalry. The usual order of March was front line, center, and rearguard, and the three battles took their position on the battlefield with the vanguard on the right, the center in the center and the rearward on the left. On the other hand, as armies grew larger and more cumbersome they often positioned as they arrived on the field. Each section in European army were positioned in either linear or block formation Where as, in the countries of the Middle East following Muslim tactics of warfare, the main forces were positioned in the battle field somewhere in the between. The main determinant of the Muslim tactics during the crusades was the predominant position of the horse archer in their army. As a light cavalry, the horse archers that made up the bulk of the Islamic armies were highly mobile. This mobility was used in four ways which gave the Turks an advantage over the European armies which could be highly dangerous when they approached for close combat. Where as, the Eastern European armies were in general high in horse archers and noble cavalry. The nobles were light lance cavalry in armor, until the armies were westernized, like the Polish knights. The light cavalry were also effective against similar cavalry deployed by the Muslims and, afterward, the Golden Horde. The heavy cavalry wore brigandine, and later on, plate armor. The light cavalry were dressed in leather or brigandine if they could afford it. Eastern Europe as well produced decent foot archers, because of the horse archer custom, but they usually had poor weighty infantry, more often than not spear or axe-armed levies. In European army cavalries were made depending on the situation. While a group of horsemen was undoubtedly efficient, cavalry in tight formations wielding lances became devastating forces. The most ordinary formation was the line or linear form. The horsemen arranged themselves in a long line, commonly three or four ranks deep and then charge. On the other hand, in Muslim cavalry a well-trained infantry force capable of withstanding any attack employed forces in a wedge formation. The horses were arranged in a large triangle, with the most heavily armored cavalry at the front. When the wedge came into contact with the infantry line, customarily it used to cave in on itself, allowing an infantry charge to move in and scatter the remaining forces. According to Medieval Canon Law and the Crusader by Brundage, as a light cavalry, the horse archers that made up the bulk of the Islamic armies were highly mobile. This mobility was used in four ways which gave the Turks an advantage over the European armies which could be highly dangerous when they approached for close combat. As Muslim cavalry became the prevailing force on the battleground, it in addition became necessary for European forces to come up with ways to counteract them. One accepted method was the use of pikes, which were spears that sometimes reached lengths of twenty feet. As the cavalry charged, the pike men arranged themselves in a tight square or orb formation, which prevented the horses from penetrating too deeply into the infantry line. With a large block of pikes shielding the stern and flanks, armies could move into an effective position without being routed. The experience level and tactical choreography aptitude of medieval armies different widely, were depending on the period and region. For larger battles, both in European and Muslim warfare pre-battle planning characteristically consisted of a council of the war leaders, which could either be the common laying down a plan or a loud debate between the different leaders, depending on how much authority the general possessed. Battleground infrastructure previous to the advent of strict lines of announcement and were naturally very difficult. Interactions often took place with the help of standards, oriflammes, banners, flags, etc. The book Medieval Canon Law and the Crusader by Brundage provides that the infantry, including missile troops, were typically employed by the European army at the onset of the battle to break open infantry formations while the cavalry shot to defeat its opposing force. When one side acquired superiority in cavalry or had it at the onset of battle it attempted to make use of the loss of cohesion in the conflicting infantry lines caused by the infantry conflict to hit the opposing infantry and attempt to rout it. This was often difficult, and careful timing was essential for a direct cavalry assault, as an ordered infantry line may often be able to beat off the cavalry attacks. Where as Muslims used to fight with arrows. The mobility of the Muslims helped them in attacking the enemy and forcing him to fight on the march. Instead of the Europeans sitting in a circle and gradually being killed by arrows, they marched toward either safety or where they supposed the enemy to be. This allowed for even greater possibilities of the use of the Muslims mobility in battle to come into distance, attack with arrows and move back away from the distance in which the slower loading crossbow could be used against them. Cannons were introduced to the battleground by European cavalry in the later medieval period. The Invention of the Crusades by Tyerman describes that on the other hand, their very poor rate of fire, which over and over again meant that only one shot was fired in the course of an entire battle and their imprecision, made them more of psychological force multiplier than an effectual anti-personnel weapon. Later on in medieval warfare, the rate of fire improved only to some extent, but the cannons became far easier to aim, mainly since they were smaller and much closer to their wielder. Their users could be easily protected, because the cannons were lighter and could be moved far more quickly. Arab warriors respected archery as a valuable skill for war and even as a sport in times of peace. The great number of archers in the armies of Islam often gave them a decisive advantage and helped them win in the wars. According to The Second Crusade and the Cistercians by Gervers the flights of arrows were used mostly by the Muslims to obliterate any consistency that the Europeans possessed, and cause them to lose horses on top. This loss of horses was a major blow to the main weapon of the Crusaders especially to the heavy cavalry charge with lances in rest. The horse archers themselves could loose their arrows from the saddle without halting or dismounting, and even shoot backwards while in retreat. The complex bow was a light weapon which frequently did not penetrate the armor far enough to cause injury to the wearer. Because of thick pads of felt and the mail worn by knights, the arrows were often seen sticking out of warriors who just continued on their way. Breakdowns in federal states resulted in the rise of a number of Muslim groups that turned to large-scale pillage as a source of income. As these groups were by and large small and required to move quickly, building defenses was a good way to endow with refuge and defense for the people and the wealth in the region. In the Medieval period surrounding armies used a wide diversity of siege engines as well as scaling ladders, battering rams; siege towers and different types of catapults like the mangonel, onager, etc. Advances in the action of sieges gave rise to the development of an array of defensive counter-measures. According to Medieval Canon Law and the Crusader, by Brundage, in particular, medieval fortifications in Muslin warfare became increasingly stronger for instance, the arrival of the concentric castle from the period of the Crusades and more hazardous to attackers, witness the rising use of machicolations and murder-holes, also the preparation of boiling oil, molten lead or hot sand. Arrow slits, hidden doors for sallies, and deep water wells were also integral to oppose siege at this time. Constructors of castles paid meticulous attention to shielding entrances, protecting gates with drawbridges, portcullises, etc. Wet animal skins were frequently draped over gates to hold back fire. Moats and other water military protection, whether natural or increased, were also imperative to protectors. In the European Middle Ages, practically all large cities were encompassed within city walls. Dubrovnik in Dalmatia is a remarkable and well-preserved instance and more vital cities had citadels, forts or castles. Great endeavor was expended to make certain an excellent water supply inside the city in case of blockade. In some cities, long tunnels were built to carry water into the city. According to Anatomy of a Crusade by Powell, the main determinant of the Muslim strategy during the crusades was the prime position of the horse archer in their army. As a light cavalry, the horse archers that made up the bulk of the Islamic armies were highly mobile. This mobility gave the Muslims an advantage over the European armies which could be highly dangerous when they approached for close combat. High mobility allowed the Islamic army to maintain a distance from the enemy and choose the moment at which they would close with them. Use of this mobility was the feigned retreat which allowed them to lead the Europeans into ambushes or to cause a fake retreat to last for some days to tire the enemy. Good mobility allowed them to attack the weakest points in the enemys army. This caused chaos while traveling, and in a battle it allowed the Muslims to attack the crusaders without ever coming into a pitched battle with the main body of the Europeans until they were worn-down and had lost all support from the flanks of the attack in battle. Another positive side of Muslim warfare was well built fortification system. These factors facilitated the Muslims in the battle. The Crusaders Kingdom by Prawer defines that the infantry, including missile troops, were typically employed by the European army at the onset of the battle to break open infantry formations while the cavalry shot to defeat its opposing force. Another method utilized by the English was the use of massed archers. The English longbow was a particularly devastating weapon of warfare. With the invention of gunpowder, the traditional methods of defense of the Muslims became less and less effective against a determined siege. Cannons were introduced to the battleground by European cavalry in the later medieval period. These factors gave the European side an advantage in the battle. In conclusion it could be mentioned that history helps out us to identify ourselves, recognize who we are and be acquainted with the origin where we come from. We over and over again shrink back from hearing about our chronological times of yore for the reason that so much of it is excruciating. The European and the Muslim styles of warfare during the time of the First and Second Crusade had developed several distinct characteristics like modification in cavalry, invention of gun powder, canons, new methods of fortification, etc. Instead of all developments it could only be concluded that battles in all ages have brought only destruction. References: Brundage, C; Medieval Canon Law and the Crusader (HBT Publishers Pvt.Ltd. 2000) Prawer, H A; The Crusaders Kingdom (Allied Publishers 1998) Powell, M; Anatomy of a Crusade (ABP Ltd 2001) Gervers, V; Second Crusade and the Cistercians (HBT Publishers Pvt. Ltd. 2000) Tyerman, J; Invention of the Crusades (Allied Publications 2001) Kar, P; History of Europe; Vol. III (Dasgupta Chatterjee 2005) King, H; Introduction to War; Vol. II (HBT Brooks Ltd. 2005) Lamb, Davis; Cult to Culture: The Development of Civilization on the Strategic Strata. (National Book Trust. 2004)

Spring Reawakened: The Mind and Matter of Rock and Rebellion Essay

What constitutes a rebellion against conformity? Is the desire for revolution a matter of action or simply a state of mind? In the 1990s, America’s counterculture was founded on the alternative, grunge, and punk rock movements that embodied the spirit of intrapersonal tension and social upheaval. The ideas emphasized through this counterculture have utilized and influenced many art forms, including theatre. Steven Sater’s Spring Awakening exudes the same unruly spirit of the ‘90s, but the musical’s setting, 19th century Germany, does little to connect contemporary audiences to the themes. To accentuate the rebellious spirit inherent in the script, an adaptation of the play will be set in America during the 1990s. Furthermore, the internal conflicts within the three protagonists, Wendla Bergman, Moritz Stiefel, and Melchior Gabor—who each represent a facet of Sigmund Freud’s map of the human subconscious—will be externalized through the characters’ use of live musical instruments onstage. In each of the Poetics’ categories, alterations will be made to the original production in order to liberate its underlying turmoil. The plot will be restructured as a framed narrative, known as the Chinese box device. Essentially, Spring Awakening will become a â€Å"story within a story.† The first scene, in which Wendla asks her mother about human conception, will be truncated and will serve as the external frame of the story. Wendla’s mother will conclude the scene with â€Å"In order for a women to conceive a child†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Sater 17). Then, plot will jump to the subsequent scene, which begins inside the framed narrative and proceed as normal. After the song â€Å"Those You’ve Known,† the musical will return to the first scene, the framing device, and conclude ... .... Simultaneously, the actors will have to â€Å"rock out† during musical numbers while singing and playing instruments. Every decision made in this production of Spring Awakening focuses on highlighting themes of rebellion, psychological conflict, and the ability of high-energy rock music to influence social movements. These ideas are present in the script, but are buried beneath an ineffectual setting; fortunately, their universal applicability allows the musical to be transplanted into a more relatable time period. When established during the American alternative rock movement of the 1990s, the musical invites contemporary audiences to think of rebellion as a psychological and behavioral matter, a form of personal motivation, and not simply the product of teenage angst. The heart of Spring Awakening ultimately lies in this deep, thematic resonance and restless spirit.

Contribute to the Child and Young Person Development Essay

An explanation of how to give adult support to the children for each of these transitions. If the child has had a death in the family. For instance, a child that they miss their parents or families and they want to be with parents and don’t like to stay at the nursery, firstly they need to be reassured, hugged and soothed, so they can feel that you are there to help them to listen to them, I can talk to them and encourage him or her to do some activities that can help the child to forget the parents for a certain hile, I can encourage him or her to play with other children, tell them a story, or bring them in a home corner to have a quiet time or 1 to 1 talking so they can express their feelings and afterwards they’ll might feel like getting involved with other children when they feel more comfortable and they can make friends and make their bereavement fade with time. They will also need therapy so they can talk through this difficulty or psychologists to help the chil d. Going to nursery. Going to nursery for the first time is not easy, the child might be worried because they don’t have friend there, they don’t know anyone and they don’t know what do, most of the children, will be shy, and so on. As a nursery practitioner I need to know how to deal with children at the first time in the nursery and I need to think of what best I can do to help them settle in, to make the children development progress. It would be good to meet the parents and child before starting nursery, to see the child daily environment by a home visit. Some children find it difficult to separate from mummy when starting the nursery and might cry, I can seat him or she on my lap reassuring the child, talk to him or her 1 to 1 let the child know that mummy will come back later after lunch, at this time children need to be hug and soothe so they know I am there to help them, take care of them, give them love, I can introduce the other children to him or her, the child might get interested in what other children are doing so I can encourage and help the child to join in. Some might take a while to settle in and might cry they might have a special toy that they use for comfort and bring it with them. All the staff of the nursery will need to work hard to encourage the child to take part in activities, to make him or her feel welcome. I could talk to parents to know more the child’s like and dislikes and use the knowledge to make an interesting activity for the child. Also allow them visits beforehand to the nursery and so they became familiar with the staff. Moving home/ country. Families who moved from one place to another, it’s quite hard for the child to adjust to a new environment, education and people. But I can do a various activities to help assist the child to deal with their emotional feelings while transition takes place. If a child is new, I can encourage the child to talk about where they used to be, I could look at a map with other children and show where he is from and how far he come from, maybe we could encourage the child to draw a picture of the new nursery to send it to ask his parents to send it to their friend in that country or even family e. . grandmother. Allow the child time to settle in. I can spend time with the child doing 1:1 activities so that they can get to know me. Admitted to hospital. When a child has a long term medical condition and needs to be admitted to hospital very often, it gets hard on the child when coming back to school as they have missed much, I can keep in contact with the parents to know the child progr ess, I could arrange to bring the child homework so he or she can keep up with the rest of the children, I could arrange to visit him or her with some student at a time to encourage him or her. If it was a child from a nursery I could prepare some activities to take to the hospital for the child to make him or her fell included, encourage the children in the nursery to do a get well card, once the child was back at the nursery I could arrange a game of dressing up of doctors.

A Theoretical Framework Of Disability Employment - 1333 Words

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